A 62-year-old man with congestive heart failure (CHF) develops increasing shortness of breath in the recumbent position. A chest x-ray reveals cardiomegaly, horizontal lines perpendicular to the lateral lung surface indicative of increased opacity in the pulmonary septa, and lung consolidation. Pulmonary edema in CHF is promoted by which of the following?
a. Decreased pulmonary capillary permeability
b. Decreased pulmonary interstitial oncotic pressure
c. Increased pulmonary capillary hydrostatic pressure
d. Increased pulmonary capillary oncotic pressure
e. Increased pulmonary interstitial hydrostatic pressure