How do climate models work?

a. Climate models work by simulating the Earth's climate system, using mathematical equations to represent physical processes such as radiation, convection, and ocean circulation.
b. Atmospheric rivers are formed by narrow bands of moisture that transport water vapor from the tropics to higher latitudes, often leading to heavy rainfall and flooding.
c. Whales affect the global climate through their role in the marine food web and their ability to sequester carbon in the deep ocean through their feces.
d. Nonlinearities, thresholds, tipping points, and surprises in the relationship of humanity with the Earth's natural systems highlight the complex and often unpredictable nature of environmental changes, posing challenges in predicting and mitigating negative outcomes.

a. Observations of Antarctic ice shelves suggest that they are melting at an accelerating rate, contributing to sea level rise and potentially impacting global ocean circulation patterns.
b. The shifting pattern of tornados and other environmental issues in the United States may indicate a growing awareness of environmental vulnerabilities, but more proactive measures are needed to address these challenges.
c. Practical actions, rather than wishful or political measures, are needed to address environmental vulnerabilities in the United States and globally, such as investing in infrastructure, implementing sustainable land use practices, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
d. The extent to which the nation is self-aware of its environmental vulnerabilities may vary, but a comprehensive and proactive approach is necessary to address these issues effectively.