Currently the U.S. Olympic Committee (USOC) pays Olympic athletes $25,000 for each gold medal, $15,000 for a silver medal, and $10,000 for a bronze medal. Since 1960, the Paralympics for disabled athletes has been a part of the Olympic Games, yet the USOC pays disabled athletes only 10 percent of what the Olympic athletes are paid, and Paralympic athletes are not allowed to participate in opening ceremonies. Paralympic athletes are angry at being treated unfairly. These athletes view Olympic athletes as:____________.
a. valence bearers
b. instrumental participants
c. referents
d. mentors
e. reinforcers

In simple words, Valence is individuals mental attitude towards result in second order. In this situation, the consequence of the first requirement is title earning and the consequence of that same second order is really the monetary support the competitors receive from either the USOC. Motivational Force (MF) = Survival rate * Instrumentality * Valence as according to Vroom's expectation principle.