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Since the first English settlers arrived at Jamestown in 1607, the story of America has been one of movement westward. As more and more Europeans came to our shores, colonists spread further and further into what was called the frontier, which is defined as an area of unsettled land. We know, however, that America was already inhabited by Natives whose ancestors had arrived thousands of years earlier. Conflicts over land ownership, religion, and culture, combined with broken promises by the U.S. government, moved the Indian population away from their homeland. The presidency of Andrew Jackson forced the removal of the tribes of the Southeast on the “Trail of Tears” to what is now Oklahoma. In the period following the Civil War, many people moved west for new opportunities and a new life. This would mean more clashes—this time with Plains Indians. Although America had changed much in the 250 years since the first settlers arrived, the attitude toward Native Americans had not. The building of the transcontinental rail road was the beginning of the end for many proud tribes of the West.
In the mid-19th century, the quest for control of the West led to the annexation of Texas and the Mexican–American War. President James Polk’s administration (1845–1849) was a period of intensive expansion for the United States. After overseeing the final details regarding the annexation of Texas from Mexico, Polk negotiated a peaceful settlement with Britain regarding ownership of the Oregon Country, which delivered to the United States what are now Washington and Oregon.
The acquisition of additional lands from Mexico, a country many in the United States perceived as weak and inferior, was not so bloodless and culminated in the Mexican–American War. After U.S. victory, the Mexican Cession added nearly half of Mexico’s territory to the United States, including New Mexico and California, and established the U.S.–Mexico border at the Rio Grande. The California Gold Rush of 1849 rapidly expanded the population of the new territory, while also prompting concerns over immigration, especially from China.
Efforts to seize western territories from native peoples and expand the republic by warring with Mexico succeeded beyond expectations; few nations had ever expanded so quickly. However, this expansion led to debates about the fate of slavery in the West. Increasingly, the South came to regard itself as under attack by radical northern abolitionists, and many northerners began to speak ominously of a southern drive to dominate U.S. politics for the purpose of protecting slaveholders’ human property. As tensions mounted and both sides hurled accusations, national unity frayed. Compromise became nearly impossible and antagonistic sectional rivalries replaced the idea of a unified, democratic republic. Tensions between the North and South ultimately led to the collapse of American democracy and a brutal civil war.
After 1800, the United States militantly expanded westward across the continent. Rooted in the idea of manifest destiny, the United States considered it a God-given right and duty to gain control of the continent and spread the benefits of its “superior” culture. Illustrated by the white, blonde, feminine figure of Columbia, the historical personification of the United States, people saw the nation’s mission as one of bringing education, modern technology, and civilization to the West and driving away the “uncivilized” American Indians.
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